Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas.
The pancreas is a gland about 6 inches long that is shaped like a thin pear lying on its side. The wider end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow end is called the tail. The pancreas lies behind the stomach and in front of the spine.
Anatomy of the pancreas. The pancreas has three areas: head, body, and tail. It is found in the abdomen near the stomach, intestines, and other organs.
The pancreas has two main jobs in the body:
To produce juices that help digest (break down) food.
To produce hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, that help control blood sugar levels. Both of these hormones help the body use and store the energy it gets from food.
The digestive juices are produced by exocrine pancreas cells and the hormones are produced by endocrine pancreas cells. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in exocrine cells.
This summary provides information on exocrine pancreatic cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Islet Cell Tumors (Endocrine Pancreas) Treatment for information on endocrine pancreatic cancer.
Smoking and health history can affect the risk of developing pancreatic cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for pancreatic cancer include the following:
Smoking.
Long-standing diabetes.
Chronic pancreatitis.
Certain hereditary conditions, such as hereditary pancreatitis, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome), von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, ataxia-telangiectasia, and the familial atypical multiple mole melanoma syndrome (FAMMM).
Possible signs of pancreatic cancer include jaundice, pain, and weight loss.
These and other symptoms may be caused by pancreatic cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes).
Pain in the upper or middle abdomen and back.
Unexplained weight loss.
Loss of appetite.
Fatigue.
Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect (find) and diagnose early.
Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect and diagnose for the following reasons:
There aren’t any noticeable signs or symptoms in the early stages of pancreatic cancer.
The signs of pancreatic cancer, when present, are like the signs of many other illnesses.
The pancreas is hidden behind other organs such as the stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, spleen, and bile ducts.
Tests that examine the pancreas are used to detect (find), diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer.
Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed with tests and procedures that produce pictures of the pancreas and the area around it. The process used to find out if cancer cells have spread within and around the pancreas is called staging. Tests and procedures to detect, diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer are usually done at the same time. In order to plan treatment, it is important to know the stage of the disease and whether or not the pancreatic cancer can be removed by surgery. The following tests and procedures may be used:
Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography. A spiral or helical CT scan makes a series of very detailed pictures of areas inside the body using an x-ray machine that scans the body in a spiral path.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radionuclide glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): A procedure in which an endoscope is inserted into the body, usually through the mouth or rectum. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. A probe at the end of the endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. This procedure is also called endosonography.
Laparoscopy: A surgical procedure to look at the organs inside the abdomen to check for signs of disease. Small incisions (cuts) are made in the wall of the abdomen and a laparoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into one of the incisions. Other instruments may be inserted through the same or other incisions to perform procedures such as removing organs or taking tissue samples for biopsy.
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): A procedure used to x-ray the ducts (tubes) that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder and from the gallbladder to the small intestine. Sometimes pancreatic cancer causes these ducts to narrow and block or slow the flow of bile, causing jaundice. An endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is passed through the mouth, esophagus, and stomach into the first part of the small intestine. A catheter (a smaller tube) is then inserted through the endoscope into the pancreatic ducts. A dye is injected through the catheter into the ducts and an x-ray is taken. If the ducts are blocked by a tumor, a fine tube may be inserted into the duct to unblock it. This tube (or stent) may be left in place to keep the duct open. Tissue samples may also be taken.
Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC): A procedure used to x-ray the liver and bile ducts. A thin needle is inserted through the skin below the ribs and into the liver. Dye is injected into the liver or bile ducts and an x-ray is taken. If a blockage is found, a thin, flexible tube called a stent is sometimes left in the liver to drain bile into the small intestine or a collection bag outside the body. This test is done only if ERCP cannot be done.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. There are several ways to do a biopsy for pancreatic cancer. A fine needle may be inserted into the pancreas during an x-ray or ultrasound to remove cells. Tissue may also be removed during a laparoscopy (a surgical incision made in the wall of the abdomen).
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
Whether or not the tumor can be removed by surgery.
The stage of the cancer (the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread outside the pancreas to nearby tissues or lymph nodes or to other places in the body).
The patient’s general health.
Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Pancreatic cancer can be controlled only if it is found before it has spread, when it can be removed by surgery. If the cancer has spread, palliative treatment can improve the patient's quality of life by controlling the symptoms and complications of this disease.
Showing posts with label cancer. Show all posts
Showing posts with label cancer. Show all posts
pancreatic cancer adenocarcinoma
The most common type of cancer of the pancreas is an adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. 85% of all cancerous tumors of the pancreas are adenocarcinomas. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the 4th leading cause of cancer deaths in men and women in the United States. The American Cancer Society estimates that each year 29,000 American are diagnosed with adenocarcinoma of the pancreas and approximately 28,000 die of pancreatic cancer.
About 20-40% of patients with pancreatic cancer appear to have the cancer contained entirely within the pancreas at the time of the diagnosis. Surgical removal of the tumor is recommended in this group of patients and this provides the best option for long term survival. Surgery for pancreatic cancer is a highly specialized operation and therefore the patient should be evaluated by a surgeon who is highly experienced in treating this disorder.
About 60-80% of the patients are found to have a locally advanced cancer because it is invading into the surrounding tissues outside the pancreas or where the cancer has metastasized (spread outside of the pancreas).
Risk factors for cancer of the pancreas:
Some of the risk factors for cancer of the pancreas include:
Cigarette Smoking: Cigarette smoking is the single most risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Approximately 30% of pancreatic cancers are thought to be related to excessive cigarette smoking.
Diet: A diet high in meat and fats increase pancreatic cancer risks while fruits, vegetables and dietary fiber appear to have a protective effect.
Diabetes Mellitus: While it is not clear whether diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for pancreatic cancer often patients develop diabetes few months to two to three years prior to manifestation of their cancer. Development of diabetes in an elderly patient should raise concern for pancreatic cancer and lead to a work up for pancreatic cancer.
Chronic pancreatitis: Chronic pancreatitis is long term inflammation of the pancreas. This condition is associated as an increased risk for pancreatic cancer.
Family History: Cancer of the pancreas seems to run in some families. An inherited tendency to develop this cancer may occur in about 5 to 10% of all cases of pancreatic cancer. Some of the DNA changes that give rise to pancreatic cancer can be recognized by genetic testing.
Staging and treatment of pancreatic cancer:
A simplified staging of pancreatic cancer places patients in the following groups for determining appropriate treatment:
Surgically resectable (removable) pancreatic cancer
Advance cancer that is surgically not removable with no evidence of spread to other organs
Metastatic cancer or cancer that has spread to other organs
Resectable (surgically removable) pancreatic cancer
For patients whose tumors are in the pancreas based on information from preoperative staging removal of the tumor by surgical means is the optimal form of therapy.
The type of the surgery depends on the location of the tumor. For tumors that are located in the first part or the head of the pancreas a whipple operation is the required treatment.
For patients whose tumors are located in the body and tail of the pancreas removal of the bottom half with a distal pancreatectomy together with removal of the spleen is the preferred form of surgical treatment.
All patients who undergo resection (removal) of the pancreas will require chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy after the surgery.
Locally advanced cancer:
Here the cancer has grown outside the pancreas to involve surrounding structures particularly blood vessels that are closely associated with the pancreas such as the superior mesenteric artery and superior mesenteric vein. Invasion of the cancer into these blood vessels precludes surgical removal of the tumor.
A determination of a locally advanced cancer should be made by an experienced surgeon based on careful evaluation of radiological (x-ray) studies such as a high quality CT scan. It is important to note that CT scans that are not done in centers specialized in the treatment of pancreatic cancer may not provide optimal information for staging of patients with pancreatic cancer. Removal of the pancreas for pancreatic cancer is a highly specialized operation and therefore the evaluation of the patient for possible surgery should be by a surgeon who is highly experienced in treating this disorder.
In patients who are determined to have unresectable cancer at a center specialized in the treatment of pancreatic cancer, treatment with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy is recommended since this treatment has been shown clinical studies to provide improved survival.
Some patients with locally advanced tumor may have excellent response to chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy and shrinkage of the tumor may allow an experienced pancreatic surgeon to remove the cancer.
Metastatic pancreatic cancer:
In patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer the tumor is found to have spread outside of the pancreas. The common sites for spread of the tumor is to the liver and to the lining of the intestines or peritoneal surfaces. In general the prognosis is poor when pancreatic cancer is metastatic and treatment is directed toward relief of symptoms to provide a good quality of life. In some patients chemotherapy may provide an improvement in their symptoms.
About 20-40% of patients with pancreatic cancer appear to have the cancer contained entirely within the pancreas at the time of the diagnosis. Surgical removal of the tumor is recommended in this group of patients and this provides the best option for long term survival. Surgery for pancreatic cancer is a highly specialized operation and therefore the patient should be evaluated by a surgeon who is highly experienced in treating this disorder.
About 60-80% of the patients are found to have a locally advanced cancer because it is invading into the surrounding tissues outside the pancreas or where the cancer has metastasized (spread outside of the pancreas).
Risk factors for cancer of the pancreas:
Some of the risk factors for cancer of the pancreas include:
Cigarette Smoking: Cigarette smoking is the single most risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Approximately 30% of pancreatic cancers are thought to be related to excessive cigarette smoking.
Diet: A diet high in meat and fats increase pancreatic cancer risks while fruits, vegetables and dietary fiber appear to have a protective effect.
Diabetes Mellitus: While it is not clear whether diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for pancreatic cancer often patients develop diabetes few months to two to three years prior to manifestation of their cancer. Development of diabetes in an elderly patient should raise concern for pancreatic cancer and lead to a work up for pancreatic cancer.
Chronic pancreatitis: Chronic pancreatitis is long term inflammation of the pancreas. This condition is associated as an increased risk for pancreatic cancer.
Family History: Cancer of the pancreas seems to run in some families. An inherited tendency to develop this cancer may occur in about 5 to 10% of all cases of pancreatic cancer. Some of the DNA changes that give rise to pancreatic cancer can be recognized by genetic testing.
Staging and treatment of pancreatic cancer:
A simplified staging of pancreatic cancer places patients in the following groups for determining appropriate treatment:
Surgically resectable (removable) pancreatic cancer
Advance cancer that is surgically not removable with no evidence of spread to other organs
Metastatic cancer or cancer that has spread to other organs
Resectable (surgically removable) pancreatic cancer
For patients whose tumors are in the pancreas based on information from preoperative staging removal of the tumor by surgical means is the optimal form of therapy.
The type of the surgery depends on the location of the tumor. For tumors that are located in the first part or the head of the pancreas a whipple operation is the required treatment.
For patients whose tumors are located in the body and tail of the pancreas removal of the bottom half with a distal pancreatectomy together with removal of the spleen is the preferred form of surgical treatment.
All patients who undergo resection (removal) of the pancreas will require chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy after the surgery.
Locally advanced cancer:
Here the cancer has grown outside the pancreas to involve surrounding structures particularly blood vessels that are closely associated with the pancreas such as the superior mesenteric artery and superior mesenteric vein. Invasion of the cancer into these blood vessels precludes surgical removal of the tumor.
A determination of a locally advanced cancer should be made by an experienced surgeon based on careful evaluation of radiological (x-ray) studies such as a high quality CT scan. It is important to note that CT scans that are not done in centers specialized in the treatment of pancreatic cancer may not provide optimal information for staging of patients with pancreatic cancer. Removal of the pancreas for pancreatic cancer is a highly specialized operation and therefore the evaluation of the patient for possible surgery should be by a surgeon who is highly experienced in treating this disorder.
In patients who are determined to have unresectable cancer at a center specialized in the treatment of pancreatic cancer, treatment with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy is recommended since this treatment has been shown clinical studies to provide improved survival.
Some patients with locally advanced tumor may have excellent response to chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy and shrinkage of the tumor may allow an experienced pancreatic surgeon to remove the cancer.
Metastatic pancreatic cancer:
In patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer the tumor is found to have spread outside of the pancreas. The common sites for spread of the tumor is to the liver and to the lining of the intestines or peritoneal surfaces. In general the prognosis is poor when pancreatic cancer is metastatic and treatment is directed toward relief of symptoms to provide a good quality of life. In some patients chemotherapy may provide an improvement in their symptoms.
colon cancer treatment
Colon Cancer Chemotherapy:
As one of the treatment options for colon cancer, chemotherapy uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells. The drugs either kill the cancer cells or stop them from dividing. Chemotherapy may be administered orally, injected into a vein, or placed directly in an area of the body. When used to treat people with colon cancer, chemotherapy may cause side effects, including an increased risk of infection, hair loss,An Overview of Colon Cancer Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy for colon cancer uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping the cells from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken orally or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body. This is called systemic chemotherapy. When chemotherapy is placed directly into the spinal column, an organ, or a body cavity (such as the abdomen), the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas. This is called regional chemotherapy.
Chemoembolization of the hepatic artery may be used for colon cancer treatment when the cancer has spread to the liver. This involves blocking the hepatic artery (the main artery that supplies blood to the liver) and injecting anticancer drugs between the blockage and the liver. The liver's arteries then deliver the drugs throughout the liver. Only a small amount of the drug reaches other parts of the body. The blockage may be temporary or permanent, depending on what is used to block the artery. The liver continues to receive some blood from the hepatic portal vein, which carries blood from the stomach and intestine.
The way the colon cancer chemotherapy is administered depends on the stage of colon cancer being treated.
Side Effects Associated With Colon Cancer Chemotherapy
Side effects associated with colon cancer chemotherapy depend mainly on the specific drugs used and the dose. In general, anticancer drugs affect cells that divide rapidly, especially:
•Blood cells. These cells fight infection, help the blood to clot, and carry oxygen to all parts of the body. When drugs affect blood cells, patients are more likely to get infections, bruise or bleed easily, or feel very weak and tired.
•Cells in hair roots. Chemotherapy can cause hair loss. The hair grows back, but sometimes the new hair is somewhat different in color and texture.
•Cells that line the digestive tract. Chemotherapy can cause poor appetite, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, or mouth and lip sores. Many of these side effects can be controlled with drugs. nausea, vomiting, and lip sores.
As one of the treatment options for colon cancer, chemotherapy uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells. The drugs either kill the cancer cells or stop them from dividing. Chemotherapy may be administered orally, injected into a vein, or placed directly in an area of the body. When used to treat people with colon cancer, chemotherapy may cause side effects, including an increased risk of infection, hair loss,An Overview of Colon Cancer Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy for colon cancer uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping the cells from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken orally or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body. This is called systemic chemotherapy. When chemotherapy is placed directly into the spinal column, an organ, or a body cavity (such as the abdomen), the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas. This is called regional chemotherapy.
Chemoembolization of the hepatic artery may be used for colon cancer treatment when the cancer has spread to the liver. This involves blocking the hepatic artery (the main artery that supplies blood to the liver) and injecting anticancer drugs between the blockage and the liver. The liver's arteries then deliver the drugs throughout the liver. Only a small amount of the drug reaches other parts of the body. The blockage may be temporary or permanent, depending on what is used to block the artery. The liver continues to receive some blood from the hepatic portal vein, which carries blood from the stomach and intestine.
The way the colon cancer chemotherapy is administered depends on the stage of colon cancer being treated.
Side Effects Associated With Colon Cancer Chemotherapy
Side effects associated with colon cancer chemotherapy depend mainly on the specific drugs used and the dose. In general, anticancer drugs affect cells that divide rapidly, especially:
•Blood cells. These cells fight infection, help the blood to clot, and carry oxygen to all parts of the body. When drugs affect blood cells, patients are more likely to get infections, bruise or bleed easily, or feel very weak and tired.
•Cells in hair roots. Chemotherapy can cause hair loss. The hair grows back, but sometimes the new hair is somewhat different in color and texture.
•Cells that line the digestive tract. Chemotherapy can cause poor appetite, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, or mouth and lip sores. Many of these side effects can be controlled with drugs. nausea, vomiting, and lip sores.
Ovarian Cysts, Polycystic Ovary syndrome and ovarian cancer
Ovarian cysts:
Ovarian cysts are very common and often exist without symptoms. In a normal cycle, every month several follicles, each containing an egg, develop. A surge of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone helps release the egg, and progesterone increases. If the egg is not fertilized, the cycle starts all over again. Sometimes, however, no egg is released. Then no progesterone is secreted and more estrogen is released, thus maturing the follicles into fluid-filled sacs or cysts that will grow larger every month until progesterone is secreted.
Cysts can appear in a very short time and disappear just as quickly. Cysts can be alone or in groups, small or large (even as big as a lemon!). Often when cysts are a few centimeters in size, doctors will recommend surgery. However, if a diet and supplementation program is followed, those cysts will usually reduce and disappear. The risk of cancer increases when cysts become solid. Ovarian cancer is rare, but it is difficult to diagnose and remission rates with conventional medicine are poor.
Sometimes a follicle is able to grow tissue or skin cells within the cyst. These types of cysts will not dissipate and must be surgically removed.
Symptoms:
Often ovarian cysts are not noticed until a pelvic examination is performed by the doctor or by an ultrasound scan. This is why it is so important to go for your annual PAP test because doctors perform a pelvic exam at the same time. For those with symptoms, the most obvious symptom is pain, either tenderness to the touch or a constant sore or burning sensation in the abdomen, located in the lower abdomen off to the right or left. Pain may occur during ovulation or intercourse. If a cyst erupts in the pelvic cavity, blood and fluid will discharge, possibly causing pain.
Causes:
Ovarian cysts occur when there is a hormone imbalance. Estrogen dominance brought on by poor elimination of waste by the lymphatic system, colon, liver and kidneys is a factor. Emotional or physical trauma, prolonged stress, and even heavy exercise can cause increased estrogen. A diet rich in meat and dairy products is also responsible for elevating estrogen. Cysts that occur after menopause should be looked at by a physician, as there is a greater risk of them being cancerous. The risk of ovarian cancer is increased with the use of fertility drugs or birth control pills, or if you have never been pregnant.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome:
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a disorder where many fluid-filled cysts are present and male hormones are excessively high. In this disorder, excess luteinizing hormone increases the production of male hormones that can cause acne and coarse hair growth.
Affecting up to 10 percent of the U.S. population, Polycystic Ovary Syndrome is the most common hormone dysfunction among women in their reproductive years. Because eggs are frequently not released, fertility is a problem. If pregnancy does occur, it often ends with first trimester miscarriage or is associated with gestational diabetes. The condition seems to run in families, with 20 percent of mothers and 40 percent of sisters of those with PCOS also demonstrating varying degrees of the syndrome.
With the approach of menopause, androgen production declines, and there is a more normal pattern of menstruation. If left untreated, PCOS can lead to cancer of the uterine lining. Women with PCOS also are at increased risk for development of Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and hypertension.
Symptoms:PCOS usually shows with coarse hair growth on the face and chest, and higher levels of male androgenic hormones, caused when the pituitary gland releases an excess of luteinizing hormone. Acne and oily skin are also evident. Ovaries are typically enlarged and contain multiple cysts. Symptoms often become apparent in puberty when menstruation is to begin: irregular menstrual periods with copious bleeding may occur, or PCOS can cause a lack of periods altogether. Infertility is a major concern of women with PCOS.
Causes:
Although historically considered a gynecological problem, research now shows that PCOS is associated with hyperinsulinemia (production of too much of the insulin hormone) and impaired glucose metabolism. Perhaps not surprisingly, more than 65 percent of women who suffer from PCOS are obese. Reports indicate that early pubarche (breast budding and pubic hair growth) is linked to ovarian hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance, suggesting another hormonal trigger. Doctors typically try to determine if a tumor is responsible for the production of male hormones. Thyroid and prolactin abnormalities should also be investigated as possible causes of amenorrhea (lack of period).
Since the extra weight seems to be an important issue, those with PCOS should work toward losing excess weight gradually, using proper nutrition and exercise. Doing so will also lessen risks for diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Ovarian Cancer:
Ovarian cancer is the fifth most diagnosed cancer, accounting for almost 5 percent of all cancer deaths. In fact, about one in 70 women will eventually develop ovarian cancer. Known as the silent killer, vague symptoms make this cancer difficult to detect and allow it to invade other tissues. Ovarian cancer normally strikes between the ages of 50 and 70, and with an almost 60 percent death rate, women need to understand the symptoms so that they can seek treatment early.
Symptoms:
Symptoms of ovarian cancer can mimic common illness and are often vague. According to the Canadian Cancer Society, symptoms of early stage ovarian cancer include a mild discomfort in the lower part of the abdomen, a sense of incomplete evacuation of stool, gas, a frequent need to urinate, indigestion, feeling full after a light meal, low back pain and vaginal discharge. More advanced symptoms include painful intercourse, abnormal bleeding, diarrhea or constipation, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and fatigue. A build-up of fluid in the abdomen makes clothes feel tight. At this point, a woman may lose weight or become anemic.
Tests to diagnose ovarian cancer are simple and include a transvaginal ultrasound, a CA-125 blood test and a pelvic exam. Many doctors believe that the CA-125 blood test is not reliable, but the National Ovarian Cancer Association recommends it be done on women with above-noted symptoms. A 1983 Harvard University study found elevated levels in 80 percent of women with stages three and four ovarian cancer. The test was not as reliable with stage one and two cancer, and test results can also be high in women with uterine fibroids and endometriosis. Despite its imperfections, it is the best test that we have when combined with a transvaginal ultrasound. Fortunately, in Canada the CA-125 is covered under provincial health plans. Surgery is the only definitive method of detecting ovarian cancer.
PRESCRIPTION FOR WOMEN'S HEALTH:
Nutrients:
Dosage
Action
Multivitamins with minerals; (contains no iron)
FemmEssentials or MultiEssentials for women
As directed. See Appendix A for the complete listing of recommended nutrients and their actions.
Provides all the nutrients a woman needs every day to support all functions
EstroSense:
Take four capsules. Two at breakfast, two at dinner containing:
Milk Thistle 100 mg
Supports liver health, which is important for metabolism of hormones
D-glucarate 300 mg
Important for healthy metabolism of estrogen; supports normal cell growth
Turmeric 100 mg
95% curcumin)
Prevents abnormal cell growth, detoxifies cancer-causing form of estrogen
Indole-3-carbinol 300 mg
Stops healthy estrogen from converting into the cancer-causing form. Has been shown to reverse abnormal PAP tests within 3 menstrual cycles
Green tea extract 200 mg Protects against abnormal cell growth, detoxifies excess estrogens
Rosemary extract 50 mg
Reduces tumor formation; is antioxidant
Lycopene 10 mg
Antioxidant; reduces risk of cancer
Sulforaphane 400 mcg daily
Reduces risk of cancer; stops abnormal cell growth
Natural progesterone cream:
In Canada, progesterone cream is a prescription drug. Use 6% natural progesterone 1/4to 1/2 tsp morning and night between day 5-28 (or whenever your normal cycle ends). In the U.S., ProgestaCare by Life Flo is niceas it delivers 20 mg in a pre-measured pump dose.
Limits abnormal cell growth caused by too much estrogen. Aids ovulation
Evening Primrose Oil or Borage Oil:
3000 mg per day of Evening Primrose or 2000 mg per day of Borage oil
Anti-inflammatory; controls negative prostaglandins involved in pain and inflammation
Chaste Tree (Vitex) berry:
100-175 mg daily
Balances estrogen-to-progesterone ratio, important for proper cell function Normalizes ovulation and prolactin
HEALTH TIPS TO ENHANCE HEALING:
See health tips for Endometriosis.
Weight loss is essential in those with polycystic ovarian syndrome. See Diabetes for tips on normalizing insulin and improving insulin resistance, which aids PCOS
Ovarian cysts are very common and often exist without symptoms. In a normal cycle, every month several follicles, each containing an egg, develop. A surge of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone helps release the egg, and progesterone increases. If the egg is not fertilized, the cycle starts all over again. Sometimes, however, no egg is released. Then no progesterone is secreted and more estrogen is released, thus maturing the follicles into fluid-filled sacs or cysts that will grow larger every month until progesterone is secreted.
Cysts can appear in a very short time and disappear just as quickly. Cysts can be alone or in groups, small or large (even as big as a lemon!). Often when cysts are a few centimeters in size, doctors will recommend surgery. However, if a diet and supplementation program is followed, those cysts will usually reduce and disappear. The risk of cancer increases when cysts become solid. Ovarian cancer is rare, but it is difficult to diagnose and remission rates with conventional medicine are poor.
Sometimes a follicle is able to grow tissue or skin cells within the cyst. These types of cysts will not dissipate and must be surgically removed.
Symptoms:
Often ovarian cysts are not noticed until a pelvic examination is performed by the doctor or by an ultrasound scan. This is why it is so important to go for your annual PAP test because doctors perform a pelvic exam at the same time. For those with symptoms, the most obvious symptom is pain, either tenderness to the touch or a constant sore or burning sensation in the abdomen, located in the lower abdomen off to the right or left. Pain may occur during ovulation or intercourse. If a cyst erupts in the pelvic cavity, blood and fluid will discharge, possibly causing pain.
Causes:
Ovarian cysts occur when there is a hormone imbalance. Estrogen dominance brought on by poor elimination of waste by the lymphatic system, colon, liver and kidneys is a factor. Emotional or physical trauma, prolonged stress, and even heavy exercise can cause increased estrogen. A diet rich in meat and dairy products is also responsible for elevating estrogen. Cysts that occur after menopause should be looked at by a physician, as there is a greater risk of them being cancerous. The risk of ovarian cancer is increased with the use of fertility drugs or birth control pills, or if you have never been pregnant.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome:
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a disorder where many fluid-filled cysts are present and male hormones are excessively high. In this disorder, excess luteinizing hormone increases the production of male hormones that can cause acne and coarse hair growth.
Affecting up to 10 percent of the U.S. population, Polycystic Ovary Syndrome is the most common hormone dysfunction among women in their reproductive years. Because eggs are frequently not released, fertility is a problem. If pregnancy does occur, it often ends with first trimester miscarriage or is associated with gestational diabetes. The condition seems to run in families, with 20 percent of mothers and 40 percent of sisters of those with PCOS also demonstrating varying degrees of the syndrome.
With the approach of menopause, androgen production declines, and there is a more normal pattern of menstruation. If left untreated, PCOS can lead to cancer of the uterine lining. Women with PCOS also are at increased risk for development of Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and hypertension.
Symptoms:PCOS usually shows with coarse hair growth on the face and chest, and higher levels of male androgenic hormones, caused when the pituitary gland releases an excess of luteinizing hormone. Acne and oily skin are also evident. Ovaries are typically enlarged and contain multiple cysts. Symptoms often become apparent in puberty when menstruation is to begin: irregular menstrual periods with copious bleeding may occur, or PCOS can cause a lack of periods altogether. Infertility is a major concern of women with PCOS.
Causes:
Although historically considered a gynecological problem, research now shows that PCOS is associated with hyperinsulinemia (production of too much of the insulin hormone) and impaired glucose metabolism. Perhaps not surprisingly, more than 65 percent of women who suffer from PCOS are obese. Reports indicate that early pubarche (breast budding and pubic hair growth) is linked to ovarian hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance, suggesting another hormonal trigger. Doctors typically try to determine if a tumor is responsible for the production of male hormones. Thyroid and prolactin abnormalities should also be investigated as possible causes of amenorrhea (lack of period).
Since the extra weight seems to be an important issue, those with PCOS should work toward losing excess weight gradually, using proper nutrition and exercise. Doing so will also lessen risks for diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Ovarian Cancer:
Ovarian cancer is the fifth most diagnosed cancer, accounting for almost 5 percent of all cancer deaths. In fact, about one in 70 women will eventually develop ovarian cancer. Known as the silent killer, vague symptoms make this cancer difficult to detect and allow it to invade other tissues. Ovarian cancer normally strikes between the ages of 50 and 70, and with an almost 60 percent death rate, women need to understand the symptoms so that they can seek treatment early.
Symptoms:
Symptoms of ovarian cancer can mimic common illness and are often vague. According to the Canadian Cancer Society, symptoms of early stage ovarian cancer include a mild discomfort in the lower part of the abdomen, a sense of incomplete evacuation of stool, gas, a frequent need to urinate, indigestion, feeling full after a light meal, low back pain and vaginal discharge. More advanced symptoms include painful intercourse, abnormal bleeding, diarrhea or constipation, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and fatigue. A build-up of fluid in the abdomen makes clothes feel tight. At this point, a woman may lose weight or become anemic.
Tests to diagnose ovarian cancer are simple and include a transvaginal ultrasound, a CA-125 blood test and a pelvic exam. Many doctors believe that the CA-125 blood test is not reliable, but the National Ovarian Cancer Association recommends it be done on women with above-noted symptoms. A 1983 Harvard University study found elevated levels in 80 percent of women with stages three and four ovarian cancer. The test was not as reliable with stage one and two cancer, and test results can also be high in women with uterine fibroids and endometriosis. Despite its imperfections, it is the best test that we have when combined with a transvaginal ultrasound. Fortunately, in Canada the CA-125 is covered under provincial health plans. Surgery is the only definitive method of detecting ovarian cancer.
PRESCRIPTION FOR WOMEN'S HEALTH:
Nutrients:
Dosage
Action
Multivitamins with minerals; (contains no iron)
FemmEssentials or MultiEssentials for women
As directed. See Appendix A for the complete listing of recommended nutrients and their actions.
Provides all the nutrients a woman needs every day to support all functions
EstroSense:
Take four capsules. Two at breakfast, two at dinner containing:
Milk Thistle 100 mg
Supports liver health, which is important for metabolism of hormones
D-glucarate 300 mg
Important for healthy metabolism of estrogen; supports normal cell growth
Turmeric 100 mg
95% curcumin)
Prevents abnormal cell growth, detoxifies cancer-causing form of estrogen
Indole-3-carbinol 300 mg
Stops healthy estrogen from converting into the cancer-causing form. Has been shown to reverse abnormal PAP tests within 3 menstrual cycles
Green tea extract 200 mg Protects against abnormal cell growth, detoxifies excess estrogens
Rosemary extract 50 mg
Reduces tumor formation; is antioxidant
Lycopene 10 mg
Antioxidant; reduces risk of cancer
Sulforaphane 400 mcg daily
Reduces risk of cancer; stops abnormal cell growth
Natural progesterone cream:
In Canada, progesterone cream is a prescription drug. Use 6% natural progesterone 1/4to 1/2 tsp morning and night between day 5-28 (or whenever your normal cycle ends). In the U.S., ProgestaCare by Life Flo is niceas it delivers 20 mg in a pre-measured pump dose.
Limits abnormal cell growth caused by too much estrogen. Aids ovulation
Evening Primrose Oil or Borage Oil:
3000 mg per day of Evening Primrose or 2000 mg per day of Borage oil
Anti-inflammatory; controls negative prostaglandins involved in pain and inflammation
Chaste Tree (Vitex) berry:
100-175 mg daily
Balances estrogen-to-progesterone ratio, important for proper cell function Normalizes ovulation and prolactin
HEALTH TIPS TO ENHANCE HEALING:
See health tips for Endometriosis.
Weight loss is essential in those with polycystic ovarian syndrome. See Diabetes for tips on normalizing insulin and improving insulin resistance, which aids PCOS
ovarian cancer prevention
The first step of ovarian cancer prevention is recognizing your personal risk factors for the condition and controlling them, if possible. Risk factors that can be controlled include use of fertility drugs or hormone replacement therapy. The second step of ovarian cancer prevention is engaging in behaviors that may protect you against the disease. For example, women with a fam
Ovarian Cancer Prevention: An Overview
Doctors cannot always explain why one person will get ovarian cancer and another person will not. However, research scientists have studied general patterns of cancer in the population to learn what may increase a person's chances of developing cancer.
Anything that increases a person's chances of developing a disease is called a risk factor; anything that decreases a person's chances is called a protective factor. Ovarian cancer prevention means avoiding the risk factors and increasing the protective factors that can be controlled so that the chances of developing ovarian cancer decrease.
Ovarian Cancer Prevention: Know the Risk Factors
The first step in ovarian cancer prevention is knowing what the risk factors are for the disease. Some ovarian cancer risk factors can be avoided, but many cannot.
Studies have identified the following ovarian cancer risk factors:
Family history of ovarian cancer
Age over 50
No history of childbirth
Personal history of breast cancer or colon cancer
Use of fertility drugs
Use of talc in the genital area
Use of hormone replacement therapy.
ily history of ovarian cancer may have a prophylactic oophorectomy
Ovarian Cancer Prevention: An Overview
Doctors cannot always explain why one person will get ovarian cancer and another person will not. However, research scientists have studied general patterns of cancer in the population to learn what may increase a person's chances of developing cancer.
Anything that increases a person's chances of developing a disease is called a risk factor; anything that decreases a person's chances is called a protective factor. Ovarian cancer prevention means avoiding the risk factors and increasing the protective factors that can be controlled so that the chances of developing ovarian cancer decrease.
Ovarian Cancer Prevention: Know the Risk Factors
The first step in ovarian cancer prevention is knowing what the risk factors are for the disease. Some ovarian cancer risk factors can be avoided, but many cannot.
Studies have identified the following ovarian cancer risk factors:
Family history of ovarian cancer
Age over 50
No history of childbirth
Personal history of breast cancer or colon cancer
Use of fertility drugs
Use of talc in the genital area
Use of hormone replacement therapy.
ily history of ovarian cancer may have a prophylactic oophorectomy
ovarian cancer research
Ovarian Cancer Research
The goals of research on ovarian cancer are to improve current treatments and discover new ones. For example, scientists are currently studying biotherapy and high-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant as possible treatments for this disease. In order for research to be conducted, volunteers are needed. These people play an important role in furthering our understanding o
Ovarian Cancer Research: An Introduction
Doctors and scientists are hard at work conducting research on ovarian cancer. These studies are designed to answer important questions and to find out whether new approaches are safe and effective. This research has already led to many advances, and scientists are continuing to explore more effective methods for dealing with this disease.
Current Areas of Research on Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian cancer research scientists are currently studying surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy (including high-dose chemotherapy), biological therapy, and combinations of these types of treatments for ovarian cancer.
Biological therapy is a treatment that uses the person's immune system to fight cancer. In biological therapy, substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a method of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood-forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.
f ovarian cancer, and may benefit from new treatment methods.
The goals of research on ovarian cancer are to improve current treatments and discover new ones. For example, scientists are currently studying biotherapy and high-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant as possible treatments for this disease. In order for research to be conducted, volunteers are needed. These people play an important role in furthering our understanding o
Ovarian Cancer Research: An Introduction
Doctors and scientists are hard at work conducting research on ovarian cancer. These studies are designed to answer important questions and to find out whether new approaches are safe and effective. This research has already led to many advances, and scientists are continuing to explore more effective methods for dealing with this disease.
Current Areas of Research on Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian cancer research scientists are currently studying surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy (including high-dose chemotherapy), biological therapy, and combinations of these types of treatments for ovarian cancer.
Biological therapy is a treatment that uses the person's immune system to fight cancer. In biological therapy, substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a method of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood-forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.
f ovarian cancer, and may benefit from new treatment methods.
ovarian cancer research foundation
Ovarian Cancer Research FoundationThe Ovarian Cancer Research Foundation (OCRF) was established in May 2000 and led by eminent gynaecological oncology specialist, Chairman/Co-Founder Associate Professor Thomas Jobling and CEO/Co-Founder Liz Heliotis. It has developed to become one of Australia’s pre-eminent body supporting ovarian cancer research programs that occur nationally, and are focused upon the understanding of the causes of ovarian cancer, its early detection and improve patient survival.
A gynaecological cancer, cancer of the ovaries is one of the most common cancers affecting women and is often detected in the advanced stage of the disease, resulting in a high mortality rate. This is because the symptoms of ovarian cancer are not recognised immediately. Once diagnosed, treatment will usually include surgery and chemotherapy, depending on the stage of the cancer at diagnosis.
One goal of the OCRF is to improve the mortality rate and long-term survival rates for ovarian cancer. This may be achieved by the development of an early detection program - which is the focus of much of the ovarian cancer fundraising activities of the OCRF - and by raising community awareness.
Many fundraising initiatives are undertaken by the OCRF, such as the annual Silver Ribbon Campaign, the proceeds of which directly provide funding for research into an early detection program for cancer of the ovaries. Donations can also be made directly to the Foundation - to make a donation to the OCRF for ovarian cancer research, go to the Make a Donation page of this website or contact the Ovarian Cancer Research Foundation
A gynaecological cancer, cancer of the ovaries is one of the most common cancers affecting women and is often detected in the advanced stage of the disease, resulting in a high mortality rate. This is because the symptoms of ovarian cancer are not recognised immediately. Once diagnosed, treatment will usually include surgery and chemotherapy, depending on the stage of the cancer at diagnosis.
One goal of the OCRF is to improve the mortality rate and long-term survival rates for ovarian cancer. This may be achieved by the development of an early detection program - which is the focus of much of the ovarian cancer fundraising activities of the OCRF - and by raising community awareness.
Many fundraising initiatives are undertaken by the OCRF, such as the annual Silver Ribbon Campaign, the proceeds of which directly provide funding for research into an early detection program for cancer of the ovaries. Donations can also be made directly to the Foundation - to make a donation to the OCRF for ovarian cancer research, go to the Make a Donation page of this website or contact the Ovarian Cancer Research Foundation
ovarian cancer
Ovarian cancer originates in the cells of the ovaries, including surface epithelial cells, germ cells and the sex cord-stromal cells. Ovarian tumors include:
Germ Cell Tumors — Ovarian germ cell tumors develop from cells that produce the ova or eggs. Most germ cell tumors are benign, although some are cancerous and may be life-threatening. The most common germ cell malignancies are maturing teratomas, dysgerminomas and endodermal sinus tumors. Teenagers and women in their 20s are most often diagnosed with germ cell malignancies. Before combination chemotherapy was available as a treatment, the most aggressive of these tumors — the GNP abnormal sinus tumor — was associated with a one-year disease-free survival rate of only 10 percent to 19 percent, even though 70 percent of these tumors were diagnosed very early. Today, however, 90 percent of women with ovarian germ cell malignancies can be cured and their fertility preserved.
Stromal Tumors — Ovarian stromal tumors develop from connective tissue cells that hold the ovary together and those that produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone. The most common types are granulosa-theca tumors and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors. These tumors are fairly rare and usually are considered low-grade cancers.
Epithelial Tumors — Epithelial ovarian cancer develops from the thin layer of cells, called the epithelium, that covers the ovary. Most epithelial ovarian tumors are benign, including including serous adenomas, mucinous adenomas and Brenner tumors. Cancerous epithelial tumors are the most common and the most serious of ovarian cancers, accounting for 85 percent to 90 percent of all ovarian cancer. Some ovarian epithelial tumors don't appear clearly cancerous under the microscope and are called borderline tumors or tumors of low malignant potential (LMP tumors).
When cancer is diagnosed early while the tumor is limited to the ovary, the cure rate is better than 90 percent. Unfortunately, about two-thirds of women with ovarian cancer initially seek medical attention when the tumor is already advanced and has spread outside of the ovary. In these instances, the five-year survival rate is significantly lower.
Ovarian cancer often does not have signs or symptoms until later in its development. Symptoms may include:
Abdominal bloating or swelling
Abdominal or pelvic pain
Difficulty eating or feeling full quickly
Frequent urination or feeling a need to urinate
If these symptoms are persistent and a change from the norm, you should see a gynecologist.
Others symptoms of ovarian cancer can include:
Back pain
Constipation
Fatigue
Menstrual changes
Pain during sex
Upset stomach
These symptoms, however, may be caused by other conditions and aren't necessarily signs of ovarian cancer.
Germ Cell Tumors — Ovarian germ cell tumors develop from cells that produce the ova or eggs. Most germ cell tumors are benign, although some are cancerous and may be life-threatening. The most common germ cell malignancies are maturing teratomas, dysgerminomas and endodermal sinus tumors. Teenagers and women in their 20s are most often diagnosed with germ cell malignancies. Before combination chemotherapy was available as a treatment, the most aggressive of these tumors — the GNP abnormal sinus tumor — was associated with a one-year disease-free survival rate of only 10 percent to 19 percent, even though 70 percent of these tumors were diagnosed very early. Today, however, 90 percent of women with ovarian germ cell malignancies can be cured and their fertility preserved.
Stromal Tumors — Ovarian stromal tumors develop from connective tissue cells that hold the ovary together and those that produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone. The most common types are granulosa-theca tumors and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors. These tumors are fairly rare and usually are considered low-grade cancers.
Epithelial Tumors — Epithelial ovarian cancer develops from the thin layer of cells, called the epithelium, that covers the ovary. Most epithelial ovarian tumors are benign, including including serous adenomas, mucinous adenomas and Brenner tumors. Cancerous epithelial tumors are the most common and the most serious of ovarian cancers, accounting for 85 percent to 90 percent of all ovarian cancer. Some ovarian epithelial tumors don't appear clearly cancerous under the microscope and are called borderline tumors or tumors of low malignant potential (LMP tumors).
When cancer is diagnosed early while the tumor is limited to the ovary, the cure rate is better than 90 percent. Unfortunately, about two-thirds of women with ovarian cancer initially seek medical attention when the tumor is already advanced and has spread outside of the ovary. In these instances, the five-year survival rate is significantly lower.
Ovarian cancer often does not have signs or symptoms until later in its development. Symptoms may include:
Abdominal bloating or swelling
Abdominal or pelvic pain
Difficulty eating or feeling full quickly
Frequent urination or feeling a need to urinate
If these symptoms are persistent and a change from the norm, you should see a gynecologist.
Others symptoms of ovarian cancer can include:
Back pain
Constipation
Fatigue
Menstrual changes
Pain during sex
Upset stomach
These symptoms, however, may be caused by other conditions and aren't necessarily signs of ovarian cancer.
ovarian cancer prognosis
A prognosis is a medical opinion as to the likely course and outcome of the disease based on the experiences of hundreds of patients. However, various factors can affect this, such as the patient's general health and response to treatment, as well as the cancer's stage. For that reason, a prognosis for ovarian cancer cannot be used to predict with certainty what will happen to a specific person
Prognosis for Ovarian Cancer: An Overview
Women who are facing ovarian cancer are naturally concerned about what their future holds. Understanding ovarian cancer and what to expect can help patients and their loved ones plan appropriate treatment, think about lifestyle changes, and make decisions about their quality of life and finances. Many people with ovarian cancer want to know their prognosis, so they may ask their doctor or search for ovarian cancer statistics on their own.
What Is an Ovarian Cancer Prognosis?
A prognosis is a medical opinion as to the likely course and outcome of a disease. In other words, the prognosis is the chance that a patient will recover or have a recurrence (return of the cancer).
Factors that can affect a woman's ovarian cancer prognosis include:
The type and location of the cancer
The stage of the disease (the extent to which the cancer has metastasized, or spread)
The person's age, general health, and response to treatment
Prognosis for Ovarian Cancer: An Overview
Women who are facing ovarian cancer are naturally concerned about what their future holds. Understanding ovarian cancer and what to expect can help patients and their loved ones plan appropriate treatment, think about lifestyle changes, and make decisions about their quality of life and finances. Many people with ovarian cancer want to know their prognosis, so they may ask their doctor or search for ovarian cancer statistics on their own.
What Is an Ovarian Cancer Prognosis?
A prognosis is a medical opinion as to the likely course and outcome of a disease. In other words, the prognosis is the chance that a patient will recover or have a recurrence (return of the cancer).
Factors that can affect a woman's ovarian cancer prognosis include:
The type and location of the cancer
The stage of the disease (the extent to which the cancer has metastasized, or spread)
The person's age, general health, and response to treatment
colon cancer symptoms
What is the Colon?
In order to understand what colon cancer symptoms might feel like, it helps to learn a bit about the colon. The colon is an important part of the digestive system, and as such, it has a major role in helping the body absorb nutrients, minerals, and water. The colon also helps rid the body of waste in the form of stool. The colon makes up the majority of the large intestine, approximately six feet in length. The last six inches or so of the large intestine are the rectum and the anal canal.
What are the Symptoms of Colon Cancer?
Colon cancer can have many symptoms. However, in the early stages, people with colon cancer often have no symptoms at all. This is why regular screening beginning at 50 is an important investment in your healthy future.
Colon cancer symptoms come in two general varieties:
1.Local
2.Systemic
Local Colon Cancer Symptoms
Local colon cancer symptoms affect your bathroom habits and the colon itself. Some of the more common local symptoms of colon cancer include:
•Changes in your bowel habits, such as bowel movements that are either more or less frequent than normal
•Constipation (difficulty having a bowel movement or straining to have a bowel movement)
•Diarrhea (loose or watery stools)
•Intermittent (alternating) constipation and diarrhea
•Bright red or dark red blood in your stools or black, dark colored, "tarry" stools
•Stools that are thinner than normal ("pencil stools") or feeling as if you cannot empty your bowels completely
•Abdominal (midsection) discomfort, bloating, frequent gas pains, or cramps
If you experience any of these for two or more weeks, call your doctor right away to discuss your concerns and arrange for tests to get to the bottom of your symptoms.
Systemic Colon Cancer Symptoms
Systemic colon cancer symptoms are those that affect your whole body, such as weight loss, and include:
•Unintentional weight loss (losing weight when not dieting or trying to lose weight)
•Loss of appetite
•Unexplained fatigue (extreme tiredness)
•Nausea or vomiting
•Anemia (low red blood cell count or low iron in your red blood cells)
•Jaundice (yellow color to the skin and whites of the eyes)
If you experience any of these for any length of time, even a few days, call your doctor right away to discuss your concerns and arrange for tests to get to the bottom of your symptoms.
What Should I Do if I Have Colon Cancer Symptoms?
Call your doctor so he or she can set up an appointment to see you. During the appointment your doctor will take a medical history, collect blood samples for testing, and schedule you for follow-up tests, if needed.
Many people are afraid of colon cancer screening. They worry that it will hurt and that it is embarrassing. Your doctor and nurse have performed hundreds, and in some cases even thousands, of these procedures. There is nothing to be embarrassed about and remember: Even your doctor and nurse undergo these same tests to take care of their own health.
Preparing for Colon Cancer Tests
If you are worried about preparing for your colon cancer tests, ask your doctor about how best to get ready for any procedures. There are different medications for clearing your colon of stool to ensure a good screening. There is no reason to suffer in silence!
Diagnosis of Colon Cancer and How Not to Dread Colon Cancer Screening provide detailed information on screening procedures, plus tips on how to make preparing for these tests easier.
In order to understand what colon cancer symptoms might feel like, it helps to learn a bit about the colon. The colon is an important part of the digestive system, and as such, it has a major role in helping the body absorb nutrients, minerals, and water. The colon also helps rid the body of waste in the form of stool. The colon makes up the majority of the large intestine, approximately six feet in length. The last six inches or so of the large intestine are the rectum and the anal canal.
What are the Symptoms of Colon Cancer?
Colon cancer can have many symptoms. However, in the early stages, people with colon cancer often have no symptoms at all. This is why regular screening beginning at 50 is an important investment in your healthy future.
Colon cancer symptoms come in two general varieties:
1.Local
2.Systemic
Local Colon Cancer Symptoms
Local colon cancer symptoms affect your bathroom habits and the colon itself. Some of the more common local symptoms of colon cancer include:
•Changes in your bowel habits, such as bowel movements that are either more or less frequent than normal
•Constipation (difficulty having a bowel movement or straining to have a bowel movement)
•Diarrhea (loose or watery stools)
•Intermittent (alternating) constipation and diarrhea
•Bright red or dark red blood in your stools or black, dark colored, "tarry" stools
•Stools that are thinner than normal ("pencil stools") or feeling as if you cannot empty your bowels completely
•Abdominal (midsection) discomfort, bloating, frequent gas pains, or cramps
If you experience any of these for two or more weeks, call your doctor right away to discuss your concerns and arrange for tests to get to the bottom of your symptoms.
Systemic Colon Cancer Symptoms
Systemic colon cancer symptoms are those that affect your whole body, such as weight loss, and include:
•Unintentional weight loss (losing weight when not dieting or trying to lose weight)
•Loss of appetite
•Unexplained fatigue (extreme tiredness)
•Nausea or vomiting
•Anemia (low red blood cell count or low iron in your red blood cells)
•Jaundice (yellow color to the skin and whites of the eyes)
If you experience any of these for any length of time, even a few days, call your doctor right away to discuss your concerns and arrange for tests to get to the bottom of your symptoms.
What Should I Do if I Have Colon Cancer Symptoms?
Call your doctor so he or she can set up an appointment to see you. During the appointment your doctor will take a medical history, collect blood samples for testing, and schedule you for follow-up tests, if needed.
Many people are afraid of colon cancer screening. They worry that it will hurt and that it is embarrassing. Your doctor and nurse have performed hundreds, and in some cases even thousands, of these procedures. There is nothing to be embarrassed about and remember: Even your doctor and nurse undergo these same tests to take care of their own health.
Preparing for Colon Cancer Tests
If you are worried about preparing for your colon cancer tests, ask your doctor about how best to get ready for any procedures. There are different medications for clearing your colon of stool to ensure a good screening. There is no reason to suffer in silence!
Diagnosis of Colon Cancer and How Not to Dread Colon Cancer Screening provide detailed information on screening procedures, plus tips on how to make preparing for these tests easier.
colon cancer
Colon cancer is cancer that starts in the large intestine (colon) or the rectum (end of the colon). Such cancer is sometimes referred to as "colorectal cancer."
Other types of colon cancer, such as lymphoma, carcinoid tumors, melanoma, and sarcomas, are rare. In this article, use of the term "colon cancer" refers to colon carcinoma and not these rare types of colon cancer.
Causes
According to the American Cancer Society, colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in the United States. (However, early diagnosis often leads to a complete cure.)
There is no single cause for colon cancer. Nearly all colon cancers begin as noncancerous (benign) polyps, which slowly develop into cancer.
You have a higher risk for colon cancer if you have:
Cancer elsewhere in the body
Colorectal polyps
Crohn's disease
Family history of colon cancer
Personal history of breast cancer
Ulcerative colitis
Certain genetic syndromes also increase the risk of developing colon cancer.
What you eat may play a role in your risk of colon cancer. Colon cancer may be associated with a high-fat, low-fiber diet and red meat. However, some studies found that the risk does not drop if you switch to a high-fiber diet, so the cause of the link is not yet clear.
Smoking cigarettes is another risk factor for colorectal cancer.
Symptoms
Many cases of colon cancer have no symptoms. The following symptoms, however, may indicate colon cancer:
Abdominal pain and tenderness in the lower abdomen
Blood in the stool
Diarrhea, constipation, or other change in bowel habits
Intestinal obstruction
Narrow stools
Unexplained anemia
Weight loss with no known reason
Exams and Tests
With proper screening, colon cancer can be detected before symptoms develop, when it is most curable.
Your doctor will perform a physical exam and press on your belly area. The physical exam rarely shows any problems, although the doctor may feel a mass in the abdomen. A rectal exam may reveal a mass in patients with rectal cancer, but not colon cancer.
Imaging tests to diagnose colorectal cancer include:
Colonoscopy
Sigmoidoscopy
Note: Only colonoscopy can see the entire colon.
A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) may detect small amounts of blood in the stool, which could suggest colon cancer. However, this test is often negative in patients with colon cancer. For this reason, a FOBT must be done along with colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. It is also important to note that a positive FOBT doesn't necessarily mean you have cancer.
A complete blood count may show signs of anemia with low iron levels.
If your doctor learns that you do have colorectal cancer, more tests will be done to see if the cancer has spread. This is called staging.
Stage 0: Very early cancer on the innermost layer of the intestine
Stage I: Cancer is in the inner layers of the colon
Stage II: Cancer has spread through the muscle wall of the colon
Stage III: Cancer has spread to the lymph nodes
Stage IV: Cancer has spread to other organs
Treatment
Treatment depends partly on the stage of the cancer. In general, treatments may include:
Chemotherapy to kill cancer cells
Surgery to remove cancer cells
Radiation therapy to destroy cancerous tissue
Stage 0 colon cancer may be treated by removing the cancer cells, often during a colonoscopy. For stages I, II, and III cancer, more extensive surgery is needed to remove the part of the colon that is cancerous. (See: Colon resection)
There is some debate as to whether patients with stage II colon cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery. You should discuss this with your oncologist.
Almost all patients with stage III colon cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery for approximately 6 - 8 months. The chemotherapy drug 5-fluorouracil has been shown to increase the chance of a cure in certain patients.
Chemotherapy is also used to treat patients with stage IV colon cancer. Irinotecan, oxaliplatin, and 5-fluorouracil are the three most commonly used drugs. In addition, monoclonal antibodies, including cetuximab (Erbitux), panitumumab (Vectibix), and bevacizumab (Avastin) have been used alone or in combination with chemotherapy.
You may receive just one type, or a combination of the drugs. Capecitabine is a chemotherapy drug taken by mouth, and is similar to 5-fluorouracil.
For patients with stage IV disease that has spread to the liver, various treatments directed specifically at the liver can be used. This may include:
Burning the cancer (ablation)
Cutting out the cancer
Delivering chemotherapy or radiation directly into the liver
Freezing the cancer (cryotherapy)
Although radiation therapy is occasionally used in patients with colon cancer, it is usually used in combination with chemotherapy for patients with stage III rectal cancer.
Support Groups
For additional resources and information, see colon cancer support groups.
Outlook (Prognosis)
Colon cancer is, in almost all cases, a treatable disease if caught early.
How well you do depends on many things, including the stage of the cancer. In general, when treated at an early stage, the vast majority of patients survive at least 5 years after their diagnosis. (This is called the 5-year survival rate.) However, the 5-year survival rate drops considerably once the cancer has spread.
If the colon cancer does not come back (recur) within 5 years, it is considered cured. Stage I, II, and III cancers are considered potentially curable. In most cases, stage IV cancer is not curable.
Possible Complications
Cancer returning in the colon
Cancer spreading to other organs or tissues (metastasis)
Development of a second primary colorectal cancer
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your health care provider if you have:
Black, tar-like stools
Blood during a bowel movement
Change in bowel habits
Prevention
The death rate for colon cancer has dropped in the last 15 years. This may be due to increased awareness and screening by colonoscopy.
Colon cancer can almost always be caught in its earliest and most curable stages by colonoscopy. Almost all men and women age 50 and older should have a colon cancer screening. Patients at risk may need screening earlier.
For information on this procedure, see:
Colon cancer screening
Colonoscopy
Colon cancer screening can find precancerous polyps. Removing these polyps may prevent colon cancer.
Dietary and lifestyle modifications are important. Some evidence suggests that low-fat and high-fiber diets may reduce your risk of colon cancer.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends against taking aspirin or other anti-inflammatory medicines to prevent colon cancer if you have an average risk of the disease -- even if someone in your family has had the condition. Taking more than 300 mg a day of aspirin and similar drugs may cause dangerous gastrointestinal bleeding and heart problems in some people.
Although low-dose aspirin may help reduce your risk of other conditions, such as heart disease, it does not lower the rate of colon cancer.
Other types of colon cancer, such as lymphoma, carcinoid tumors, melanoma, and sarcomas, are rare. In this article, use of the term "colon cancer" refers to colon carcinoma and not these rare types of colon cancer.
Causes
According to the American Cancer Society, colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in the United States. (However, early diagnosis often leads to a complete cure.)
There is no single cause for colon cancer. Nearly all colon cancers begin as noncancerous (benign) polyps, which slowly develop into cancer.
You have a higher risk for colon cancer if you have:
Cancer elsewhere in the body
Colorectal polyps
Crohn's disease
Family history of colon cancer
Personal history of breast cancer
Ulcerative colitis
Certain genetic syndromes also increase the risk of developing colon cancer.
What you eat may play a role in your risk of colon cancer. Colon cancer may be associated with a high-fat, low-fiber diet and red meat. However, some studies found that the risk does not drop if you switch to a high-fiber diet, so the cause of the link is not yet clear.
Smoking cigarettes is another risk factor for colorectal cancer.
Symptoms
Many cases of colon cancer have no symptoms. The following symptoms, however, may indicate colon cancer:
Abdominal pain and tenderness in the lower abdomen
Blood in the stool
Diarrhea, constipation, or other change in bowel habits
Intestinal obstruction
Narrow stools
Unexplained anemia
Weight loss with no known reason
Exams and Tests
With proper screening, colon cancer can be detected before symptoms develop, when it is most curable.
Your doctor will perform a physical exam and press on your belly area. The physical exam rarely shows any problems, although the doctor may feel a mass in the abdomen. A rectal exam may reveal a mass in patients with rectal cancer, but not colon cancer.
Imaging tests to diagnose colorectal cancer include:
Colonoscopy
Sigmoidoscopy
Note: Only colonoscopy can see the entire colon.
A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) may detect small amounts of blood in the stool, which could suggest colon cancer. However, this test is often negative in patients with colon cancer. For this reason, a FOBT must be done along with colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. It is also important to note that a positive FOBT doesn't necessarily mean you have cancer.
A complete blood count may show signs of anemia with low iron levels.
If your doctor learns that you do have colorectal cancer, more tests will be done to see if the cancer has spread. This is called staging.
Stage 0: Very early cancer on the innermost layer of the intestine
Stage I: Cancer is in the inner layers of the colon
Stage II: Cancer has spread through the muscle wall of the colon
Stage III: Cancer has spread to the lymph nodes
Stage IV: Cancer has spread to other organs
Treatment
Treatment depends partly on the stage of the cancer. In general, treatments may include:
Chemotherapy to kill cancer cells
Surgery to remove cancer cells
Radiation therapy to destroy cancerous tissue
Stage 0 colon cancer may be treated by removing the cancer cells, often during a colonoscopy. For stages I, II, and III cancer, more extensive surgery is needed to remove the part of the colon that is cancerous. (See: Colon resection)
There is some debate as to whether patients with stage II colon cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery. You should discuss this with your oncologist.
Almost all patients with stage III colon cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery for approximately 6 - 8 months. The chemotherapy drug 5-fluorouracil has been shown to increase the chance of a cure in certain patients.
Chemotherapy is also used to treat patients with stage IV colon cancer. Irinotecan, oxaliplatin, and 5-fluorouracil are the three most commonly used drugs. In addition, monoclonal antibodies, including cetuximab (Erbitux), panitumumab (Vectibix), and bevacizumab (Avastin) have been used alone or in combination with chemotherapy.
You may receive just one type, or a combination of the drugs. Capecitabine is a chemotherapy drug taken by mouth, and is similar to 5-fluorouracil.
For patients with stage IV disease that has spread to the liver, various treatments directed specifically at the liver can be used. This may include:
Burning the cancer (ablation)
Cutting out the cancer
Delivering chemotherapy or radiation directly into the liver
Freezing the cancer (cryotherapy)
Although radiation therapy is occasionally used in patients with colon cancer, it is usually used in combination with chemotherapy for patients with stage III rectal cancer.
Support Groups
For additional resources and information, see colon cancer support groups.
Outlook (Prognosis)
Colon cancer is, in almost all cases, a treatable disease if caught early.
How well you do depends on many things, including the stage of the cancer. In general, when treated at an early stage, the vast majority of patients survive at least 5 years after their diagnosis. (This is called the 5-year survival rate.) However, the 5-year survival rate drops considerably once the cancer has spread.
If the colon cancer does not come back (recur) within 5 years, it is considered cured. Stage I, II, and III cancers are considered potentially curable. In most cases, stage IV cancer is not curable.
Possible Complications
Cancer returning in the colon
Cancer spreading to other organs or tissues (metastasis)
Development of a second primary colorectal cancer
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your health care provider if you have:
Black, tar-like stools
Blood during a bowel movement
Change in bowel habits
Prevention
The death rate for colon cancer has dropped in the last 15 years. This may be due to increased awareness and screening by colonoscopy.
Colon cancer can almost always be caught in its earliest and most curable stages by colonoscopy. Almost all men and women age 50 and older should have a colon cancer screening. Patients at risk may need screening earlier.
For information on this procedure, see:
Colon cancer screening
Colonoscopy
Colon cancer screening can find precancerous polyps. Removing these polyps may prevent colon cancer.
Dietary and lifestyle modifications are important. Some evidence suggests that low-fat and high-fiber diets may reduce your risk of colon cancer.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends against taking aspirin or other anti-inflammatory medicines to prevent colon cancer if you have an average risk of the disease -- even if someone in your family has had the condition. Taking more than 300 mg a day of aspirin and similar drugs may cause dangerous gastrointestinal bleeding and heart problems in some people.
Although low-dose aspirin may help reduce your risk of other conditions, such as heart disease, it does not lower the rate of colon cancer.
cancer of the ovaries
The ovaries
The ovaries are part of a woman's reproductive system. They are in the pelvis. Each ovary is about the size of an almond.
The ovaries make the female hormones -- estrogen and progesterone. They also release eggs. An egg travels from an ovary through a fallopian tube to the womb (uterus).
When a woman goes through her "change of life" (menopause), her ovaries stop releasing eggs and make far lower levels of hormones.
Understanding ovarian cancer
Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that make up tissues. Tissues make up the organs of the body.
Normally, cells grow and divide to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old, they die, and new cells take their place.
Sometimes, this orderly process goes wrong. New cells form when the body does not need them, and old cells do not die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor.
Tumors can be benign or malignant:
Benign tumors are not cancer:
Benign tumors are rarely life-threatening.
Generally, benign tumors can be removed. They usually do not grow back.
Benign tumors do not invade the tissues around them.
Cells from benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.
Malignant tumors are cancer:
Malignant tumors are generally more serious than benign tumors. They may be life-threatening.
Malignant tumors often can be removed. But sometimes they grow back.
Malignant tumors can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs.
Cells from malignant tumors can spread to other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by breaking away from the original (primary) tumor and entering the lymphatic system or bloodstream. The cells invade other organs and form new tumors that damage these organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis.
Benign and malignant cysts
An ovarian cyst may be found on the surface of an ovary or inside it. A cyst contains fluid. Sometimes it contains solid tissue too. Most ovarian cysts are benign (not cancer).
Most ovarian cysts go away with time. Sometimes, a doctor will find a cyst that does not go away or that gets larger. The doctor may order tests to make sure that the cyst is not cancer.
Ovarian cancer
Ovarian cancer can invade, shed, or spread to other organs:
Invade: A malignant ovarian tumor can grow and invade organs next to the ovaries, such as the fallopian tubes and uterus.
Shed: Cancer cells can shed (break off) from the main ovarian tumor. Shedding into the abdomen may lead to new tumors forming on the surface of nearby organs and tissues. The doctor may call these seeds or implants.
Spread: Cancer cells can spread through the lymphatic system to lymph nodes in the pelvis, abdomen, and chest. Cancer cells may also spread through the bloodstream to organs such as the liver and lungs.
When cancer spreads from its original place to another part of the body, the new tumor has the same kind of abnormal cells and the same name as the original tumor. For example, if ovarian cancer spreads to the liver, the cancer cells in the liver are actually ovarian cancer cells. The disease is metastatic ovarian cancer, not liver cancer. For that reason, it is treated as ovarian cancer, not liver cancer. Doctors call the new tumor "distant" or metastatic disease.
The ovaries are part of a woman's reproductive system. They are in the pelvis. Each ovary is about the size of an almond.
The ovaries make the female hormones -- estrogen and progesterone. They also release eggs. An egg travels from an ovary through a fallopian tube to the womb (uterus).
When a woman goes through her "change of life" (menopause), her ovaries stop releasing eggs and make far lower levels of hormones.
Understanding ovarian cancer
Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that make up tissues. Tissues make up the organs of the body.
Normally, cells grow and divide to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old, they die, and new cells take their place.
Sometimes, this orderly process goes wrong. New cells form when the body does not need them, and old cells do not die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor.
Tumors can be benign or malignant:
Benign tumors are not cancer:
Benign tumors are rarely life-threatening.
Generally, benign tumors can be removed. They usually do not grow back.
Benign tumors do not invade the tissues around them.
Cells from benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.
Malignant tumors are cancer:
Malignant tumors are generally more serious than benign tumors. They may be life-threatening.
Malignant tumors often can be removed. But sometimes they grow back.
Malignant tumors can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs.
Cells from malignant tumors can spread to other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by breaking away from the original (primary) tumor and entering the lymphatic system or bloodstream. The cells invade other organs and form new tumors that damage these organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis.
Benign and malignant cysts
An ovarian cyst may be found on the surface of an ovary or inside it. A cyst contains fluid. Sometimes it contains solid tissue too. Most ovarian cysts are benign (not cancer).
Most ovarian cysts go away with time. Sometimes, a doctor will find a cyst that does not go away or that gets larger. The doctor may order tests to make sure that the cyst is not cancer.
Ovarian cancer
Ovarian cancer can invade, shed, or spread to other organs:
Invade: A malignant ovarian tumor can grow and invade organs next to the ovaries, such as the fallopian tubes and uterus.
Shed: Cancer cells can shed (break off) from the main ovarian tumor. Shedding into the abdomen may lead to new tumors forming on the surface of nearby organs and tissues. The doctor may call these seeds or implants.
Spread: Cancer cells can spread through the lymphatic system to lymph nodes in the pelvis, abdomen, and chest. Cancer cells may also spread through the bloodstream to organs such as the liver and lungs.
When cancer spreads from its original place to another part of the body, the new tumor has the same kind of abnormal cells and the same name as the original tumor. For example, if ovarian cancer spreads to the liver, the cancer cells in the liver are actually ovarian cancer cells. The disease is metastatic ovarian cancer, not liver cancer. For that reason, it is treated as ovarian cancer, not liver cancer. Doctors call the new tumor "distant" or metastatic disease.
ovarian cancer survival rate
The 5-year ovarian cancer survival rate is the percentage of people who are alive 5 years after being diagnosed, whether they have few or no symptoms, are free of disease, or are having treatment. The overall 5-year relative survival rate for 1996-2002 was 44.7 percent. However, the ovarian cancer survival rate is based on large groups of people. No two patients are exactly alike; treatment and responses to treatment vary greatly.
Ovarian Cancer Survival Rate: An Introduction
The ovarian cancer survival rate indicates the percentage of people with a certain type and stage of ovarian cancer who survive the disease for a specific period of time after their diagnosis. In most cases, statistics refer to the 5-year ovarian cancer survival rate. The 5-year ovarian cancer survival rate is the percentage of people who are alive 5 years after an ovarian cancer diagnosis, whether they have few or no signs or symptoms of ovarian cancer, are free of disease, or are having treatment for ovarian cancer.
Survival rates are based on large groups of people and cannot be used to predict what will happen to a particular patient. No two patients are exactly alike, and ovarian cancer treatment and responses to treatment vary greatly.
Factors Influencing the Ovarian Cancer Survival Rate
In general, the ovarian cancer survival rate will depend on:
The ovarian cancer type (see Types of Ovarian Cancer)
The stage of ovarian cancer (see Ovarian Cancer Stages)
A woman's age and general health
Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Overall Ovarian Cancer Survival Rate
Survival rates can be calculated by different methods for different purposes. The survival rates presented here are based on the relative survival rate. The relative survival rate measures the survival of ovarian cancer patients in comparison to the general population to estimate the effect of cancer. The overall 5-year relative ovarian cancer survival rate for 1996-2002 was 44.7 percent. The 5-year relative ovarian cancer survival rates by race and sex were:
44.2 percent for white women
39.5 percent for black women.
Ovarian Cancer Survival Rate: An Introduction
The ovarian cancer survival rate indicates the percentage of people with a certain type and stage of ovarian cancer who survive the disease for a specific period of time after their diagnosis. In most cases, statistics refer to the 5-year ovarian cancer survival rate. The 5-year ovarian cancer survival rate is the percentage of people who are alive 5 years after an ovarian cancer diagnosis, whether they have few or no signs or symptoms of ovarian cancer, are free of disease, or are having treatment for ovarian cancer.
Survival rates are based on large groups of people and cannot be used to predict what will happen to a particular patient. No two patients are exactly alike, and ovarian cancer treatment and responses to treatment vary greatly.
Factors Influencing the Ovarian Cancer Survival Rate
In general, the ovarian cancer survival rate will depend on:
The ovarian cancer type (see Types of Ovarian Cancer)
The stage of ovarian cancer (see Ovarian Cancer Stages)
A woman's age and general health
Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Overall Ovarian Cancer Survival Rate
Survival rates can be calculated by different methods for different purposes. The survival rates presented here are based on the relative survival rate. The relative survival rate measures the survival of ovarian cancer patients in comparison to the general population to estimate the effect of cancer. The overall 5-year relative ovarian cancer survival rate for 1996-2002 was 44.7 percent. The 5-year relative ovarian cancer survival rates by race and sex were:
44.2 percent for white women
39.5 percent for black women.
surgery for ovarian cancer
Surgery
The surgeon makes a long cut in the wall of the abdomen. This type of surgery is called a laparotomy. If ovarian cancer is found, the surgeon removes:
both ovaries and fallopian tubes (salpingo-oophorectomy)
the uterus (hysterectomy)
the omentum (the thin, fatty pad of tissue that covers the intestines)
nearby lymph nodes
samples of tissue from the pelvis and abdomen
If the cancer has spread, the surgeon removes as much cancer as possible. This is called "debulking" surgery.
If you have early Stage I ovarian cancer, the extent of surgery may depend on whether you want to get pregnant and have children. Some women with very early ovarian cancer may decide with their doctor to have only one ovary, one fallopian tube, and the omentum removed.
You may be uncomfortable for the first few days after surgery. Medicine can help control your pain. Before surgery, you should discuss the plan for pain relief with your doctor or nurse. After surgery, your doctor can adjust the plan if you need more pain relief.
The time it takes to heal after surgery is different for each woman. You will spend several days in the hospital. It may be several weeks before you return to normal activities.
If you haven't gone through menopause yet, surgery may cause hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and night sweats. These symptoms are caused by the sudden loss of female hormones. Talk with your doctor or nurse about your symptoms so that you can develop a treatment plan together. There are drugs and lifestyle changes that can help, and most symptoms go away or lessen with time
The surgeon makes a long cut in the wall of the abdomen. This type of surgery is called a laparotomy. If ovarian cancer is found, the surgeon removes:
both ovaries and fallopian tubes (salpingo-oophorectomy)
the uterus (hysterectomy)
the omentum (the thin, fatty pad of tissue that covers the intestines)
nearby lymph nodes
samples of tissue from the pelvis and abdomen
If the cancer has spread, the surgeon removes as much cancer as possible. This is called "debulking" surgery.
If you have early Stage I ovarian cancer, the extent of surgery may depend on whether you want to get pregnant and have children. Some women with very early ovarian cancer may decide with their doctor to have only one ovary, one fallopian tube, and the omentum removed.
You may be uncomfortable for the first few days after surgery. Medicine can help control your pain. Before surgery, you should discuss the plan for pain relief with your doctor or nurse. After surgery, your doctor can adjust the plan if you need more pain relief.
The time it takes to heal after surgery is different for each woman. You will spend several days in the hospital. It may be several weeks before you return to normal activities.
If you haven't gone through menopause yet, surgery may cause hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and night sweats. These symptoms are caused by the sudden loss of female hormones. Talk with your doctor or nurse about your symptoms so that you can develop a treatment plan together. There are drugs and lifestyle changes that can help, and most symptoms go away or lessen with time
ovarian cancer:radiation therapy
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. A large machine directs radiation at the body.
Radiation therapy is rarely used in the initial treatment of ovarian cancer, but it may be used to relieve pain and other problems caused by the disease. The treatment is given at a hospital or clinic. Each treatment takes only a few minutes.
Side effects depend mainly on the amount of radiation given and the part of your body that is treated. Radiation therapy to your abdomen and pelvis may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or bloody stools. Also, your skin in the treated area may become red, dry, and tender. Although the side effects can be distressing, your doctor can usually treat or control them. Also, they gradually go away after treatment ends.
NCI provides a booklet called Radiation Therapy and You: A Guide to Self-Help During Cancer Treatment.
Supportive care
Ovarian cancer and its treatment can lead to other health problems. You may receive supportive care to prevent or control these problems and to improve your comfort and quality of life.
Your health care team can help you with the following problems:
Pain: Your doctor or a specialist in pain control can suggest ways to relieve or reduce pain. More information about pain control can be found in the NCI booklets Pain Control: A Guide for People with Cancer and Their Families, Get Relief from Cancer Pain, and Understanding Cancer Pain.
Swollen abdomen (from abnormal fluid buildup called ascites): The swelling can be uncomfortable. Your health care team can remove the fluid whenever it builds up.
Blocked intestine: Cancer can block the intestine. Your doctor may be able to open the blockage with surgery.
Swollen legs (from lymphedema): Swollen legs can be uncomfortable and hard to bend. You may find exercises, massages, or compression bandages helpful. Physical therapists trained to manage lymphedema can also help.
Shortness of breath: Advanced cancer can cause fluid to collect around the lungs. The fluid can make it hard to breathe. Your health care team can remove the fluid whenever it builds up.
Sadness: It is normal to feel sad after a diagnosis of a serious illness. Some people find it helpful to talk about their feelings. See the "Sources of Support" section for more information.
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. A large machine directs radiation at the body.
Radiation therapy is rarely used in the initial treatment of ovarian cancer, but it may be used to relieve pain and other problems caused by the disease. The treatment is given at a hospital or clinic. Each treatment takes only a few minutes.
Side effects depend mainly on the amount of radiation given and the part of your body that is treated. Radiation therapy to your abdomen and pelvis may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or bloody stools. Also, your skin in the treated area may become red, dry, and tender. Although the side effects can be distressing, your doctor can usually treat or control them. Also, they gradually go away after treatment ends.
NCI provides a booklet called Radiation Therapy and You: A Guide to Self-Help During Cancer Treatment.
Supportive care
Ovarian cancer and its treatment can lead to other health problems. You may receive supportive care to prevent or control these problems and to improve your comfort and quality of life.
Your health care team can help you with the following problems:
Pain: Your doctor or a specialist in pain control can suggest ways to relieve or reduce pain. More information about pain control can be found in the NCI booklets Pain Control: A Guide for People with Cancer and Their Families, Get Relief from Cancer Pain, and Understanding Cancer Pain.
Swollen abdomen (from abnormal fluid buildup called ascites): The swelling can be uncomfortable. Your health care team can remove the fluid whenever it builds up.
Blocked intestine: Cancer can block the intestine. Your doctor may be able to open the blockage with surgery.
Swollen legs (from lymphedema): Swollen legs can be uncomfortable and hard to bend. You may find exercises, massages, or compression bandages helpful. Physical therapists trained to manage lymphedema can also help.
Shortness of breath: Advanced cancer can cause fluid to collect around the lungs. The fluid can make it hard to breathe. Your health care team can remove the fluid whenever it builds up.
Sadness: It is normal to feel sad after a diagnosis of a serious illness. Some people find it helpful to talk about their feelings. See the "Sources of Support" section for more information.
pancreatic cancer:stages and treatment
If the doctor finds pancreatic cancer, the patient will have more tests to find out if the cancer has spread from the pancreas to the tissues around it or to other parts of the body. This process of testing is called staging, and it helps the doctor plan the patient’s treatment. The following stages are used to describe exocrine cancer of the pancreas:
Stage I: Cancer is found only in the pancreas itself and not in other organs.
Stage II: Cancer has spread to nearby organs, such as the duodenum or bile duct, but has not entered the lymph nodes.
Stage III: Cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas. The cancer may or may not have spread to nearby organs.
Stage IVA: Cancer has spread to organs, such as the stomach, spleen, and colon, that are near the pancreas, but it has not spread to distant organs, such as the liver or lungs.
Stage IVB: Cancer has spread to organs, such as the stomach, spleen, or colon, that are near the pancreas or to places far away from the pancreas, such as the liver or lungs.
Recurrent: The cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. It may come back in the pancreas or in another part of the body.
Islet cell cancers of the pancreas are usually grouped into three stages: those occurring in one site within the pancreas; those occurring in several sites within the pancreas; and those that have spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas or to distant sites.
Surgery may be used to take out the tumor. A doctor may take out the cancer using one of the following operations:
Whipple Procedure (pancreaticoduodenectomy): In this procedure, the surgeon removes the head of the pancreas, part of the small intestine, and some of the nearby tissues. Enough of the pancreas is left to continue making digestive juices and insulin. This is the most common procedure used for removing cancer of the exocrine pancreas
Pancreatectomy: The surgeon removes the whole pancreas, part of the small intestine, part of the stomach, the bile duct, the gallbladder, the spleen, and most of the lymph nodes in the area.
Distal Pancreatectomy: The body and tail of the pancreas are removed. This procedure is most commonly used for islet cell (endocrine) cancer of the pancreas and is rarely used for cancer of the exocrine pancreas.
If the cancer has spread and it cannot be removed, the doctor may do surgery to relieve symptoms. If the cancer is blocking the small intestine and bile builds up in the gallbladder, the doctor may do surgery to go around (bypass) all or part of the small intestine. During this operation, the doctor will cut the gallbladder or bile duct and sew it to the small intestine. This is called biliary bypass.
Surgery or X-ray procedures may also be done to put in a tube (catheter) to drain bile that has built up in the area. The catheter may drain through a tube to the outside of the body or it may go around the blocked area and drain the bile to the small intestine. In addition, if the cancer is blocking the flow of food from the stomach, the stomach may be sewn directly to the small intestine so the patient can continue to eat normally.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy X-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external radiation therapy) or from putting materials that produce radiation (radioisotopes) through thin plastic tubes in the area where the cancer cells are found (internal radiation therapy).
Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. Most anticancer drugs are injected into a vein (IV) or a muscle; some are given by mouth. Chemotherapy is a systemic treatment, meaning that the drugs flow through the bloodstream to nearly every part of the body to kill cancerous cells. It is generally given in cycles: A treatment period is followed by a recovery period, then another treatment period, and so on.
The use of biological therapy (using the body’s immune system to fight cancer) is being tested for pancreatic cancer. Biological therapy searches for ways that the cancer tissue is different from normal pancreas tissue, and tries to get the body to fight the cancer. It uses materials made by the body or made in a laboratory to boost, direct, or restore the body’s natural defenses against disease. Biological therapies are sometimes called biological response modifier (BRM) therapy or immunotherapy
Stage I: Cancer is found only in the pancreas itself and not in other organs.
Stage II: Cancer has spread to nearby organs, such as the duodenum or bile duct, but has not entered the lymph nodes.
Stage III: Cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas. The cancer may or may not have spread to nearby organs.
Stage IVA: Cancer has spread to organs, such as the stomach, spleen, and colon, that are near the pancreas, but it has not spread to distant organs, such as the liver or lungs.
Stage IVB: Cancer has spread to organs, such as the stomach, spleen, or colon, that are near the pancreas or to places far away from the pancreas, such as the liver or lungs.
Recurrent: The cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. It may come back in the pancreas or in another part of the body.
Islet cell cancers of the pancreas are usually grouped into three stages: those occurring in one site within the pancreas; those occurring in several sites within the pancreas; and those that have spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas or to distant sites.
Surgery may be used to take out the tumor. A doctor may take out the cancer using one of the following operations:
Whipple Procedure (pancreaticoduodenectomy): In this procedure, the surgeon removes the head of the pancreas, part of the small intestine, and some of the nearby tissues. Enough of the pancreas is left to continue making digestive juices and insulin. This is the most common procedure used for removing cancer of the exocrine pancreas
Pancreatectomy: The surgeon removes the whole pancreas, part of the small intestine, part of the stomach, the bile duct, the gallbladder, the spleen, and most of the lymph nodes in the area.
Distal Pancreatectomy: The body and tail of the pancreas are removed. This procedure is most commonly used for islet cell (endocrine) cancer of the pancreas and is rarely used for cancer of the exocrine pancreas.
If the cancer has spread and it cannot be removed, the doctor may do surgery to relieve symptoms. If the cancer is blocking the small intestine and bile builds up in the gallbladder, the doctor may do surgery to go around (bypass) all or part of the small intestine. During this operation, the doctor will cut the gallbladder or bile duct and sew it to the small intestine. This is called biliary bypass.
Surgery or X-ray procedures may also be done to put in a tube (catheter) to drain bile that has built up in the area. The catheter may drain through a tube to the outside of the body or it may go around the blocked area and drain the bile to the small intestine. In addition, if the cancer is blocking the flow of food from the stomach, the stomach may be sewn directly to the small intestine so the patient can continue to eat normally.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy X-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external radiation therapy) or from putting materials that produce radiation (radioisotopes) through thin plastic tubes in the area where the cancer cells are found (internal radiation therapy).
Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. Most anticancer drugs are injected into a vein (IV) or a muscle; some are given by mouth. Chemotherapy is a systemic treatment, meaning that the drugs flow through the bloodstream to nearly every part of the body to kill cancerous cells. It is generally given in cycles: A treatment period is followed by a recovery period, then another treatment period, and so on.
The use of biological therapy (using the body’s immune system to fight cancer) is being tested for pancreatic cancer. Biological therapy searches for ways that the cancer tissue is different from normal pancreas tissue, and tries to get the body to fight the cancer. It uses materials made by the body or made in a laboratory to boost, direct, or restore the body’s natural defenses against disease. Biological therapies are sometimes called biological response modifier (BRM) therapy or immunotherapy
Adult Weight Gain Tied to Prostate Cancer Risk
Tuesday, September 1, 2009
TUESDAY, Sept. 1 (HealthDay News) -- Men who pack on excess pounds as young adults are at heightened risk of developing prostate cancer, although the risk varies by ethnic group, researchers from the University of Hawaii report.
Obesity is a risk factor for many common cancers, including colorectal cancer and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. However, whether obesity plays a role in prostate cancer risk has been unclear, researchers say.
The new study finds that "body mass in both younger and older adulthood, and weight gain between these periods of life, may influence prostate cancer risk," said study author Brenda Y. Hernandez, an assistant professor at the Cancer Research Center of Hawaii.
The report is published in the September online issue of Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention.
For the study, Hernandez's team looked at the relationship between weight and prostate cancer in a multiethnic population including blacks, Japanese, Hispanics, Native Hawaiians and whites, all of whom who participated in a long-term study called the Multiethnic Cohort.
The researchers collected data on almost 84,000 men who participated in the study. In all, more than 5,500 men were diagnosed with prostate cancer. Men who were overweight or obese at 21 had a lower risk of localized and low-grade prostate cancer, the researchers found.
When men put on weight seemed to matter, as did race and ethnicity. For example, "higher weight in older adulthood was associated with increased risk of prostate cancer among white and Native Hawaiian men and a decreased risk of prostate cancer among Japanese men," Hernandez said.
And excessive weight gain in young adulthood increased the risk of advanced and high-grade prostate cancers (the more dangerous kind) for white men, the report found. For black men, excessive weight gain as a young adult upped risks for less hazardous, localized and low-grade forms of the disease.
Genes and lifestyle may account for these differences in risk, Hernandez speculated. "The relationship of certain characteristics, such as body size, with cancer risk may vary across ethnic groups due to the combined influence of both genes and lifestyle," she said. "This study underscores the importance of investigating cancer etiology in diverse populations."
Victoria Stevens, strategic director of laboratory services at the American Cancer Society, said the study shows there are differences in ethnic groups, but these differences are not straightfoward.
"Their findings aren't definitive," Stevens said. "They are just not clear-cut, you don't see a simple linear relationship."
"The paper is very suggestive, but it is not clear in prostate cancer whether weight gain is as important" as it is for other malignancies, she said. "Exactly what that risk is, we still don't know."
SOURCES: Brenda Y. Hernandez, Ph.D., M.P.H., assistant professor, Cancer Research Center of Hawaii, University of Hawaii, Honolulu; Victoria Stevens, Ph.D., strategic director, laboratory services, American Cancer Society; September 2009 Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, online
HealthDay
risk factors for ovarian cancer
Risk factors
Doctors cannot always explain why one woman develops ovarian cancer and another does not. However, we do know that women with certain risk factors may be more likely than others to develop ovarian cancer. A risk factor is something that may increase the chance of developing a disease.
Studies have found the following risk factors for ovarian cancer:
Family history of cancer: Women who have a mother, daughter, or sister with ovarian cancer have an increased risk of the disease. Also, women with a family history of cancer of the breast, uterus, colon, or rectum may also have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.If several women in a family have ovarian or breast cancer, especially at a young age, this is considered a strong family history. If you have a strong family history of ovarian or breast cancer, you may wish to talk to a genetic counselor. The counselor may suggest genetic testing for you and the women in your family. Genetic tests can sometimes show the presence of specific gene changes that increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
Personal history of cancer: Women who have had cancer of the breast, uterus, colon, or rectum have a higher risk of ovarian cancer.
Age over 55: Most women are over age 55 when diagnosed with ovarian cancer.
Never pregnant: Older women who have never been pregnant have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.
Menopausal hormone therapy: Some studies have suggested that women who take estrogen by itself (estrogen without progesterone) for 10 or more years may have an increased risk of ovarian cancer
Doctors cannot always explain why one woman develops ovarian cancer and another does not. However, we do know that women with certain risk factors may be more likely than others to develop ovarian cancer. A risk factor is something that may increase the chance of developing a disease.
Studies have found the following risk factors for ovarian cancer:
Family history of cancer: Women who have a mother, daughter, or sister with ovarian cancer have an increased risk of the disease. Also, women with a family history of cancer of the breast, uterus, colon, or rectum may also have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.If several women in a family have ovarian or breast cancer, especially at a young age, this is considered a strong family history. If you have a strong family history of ovarian or breast cancer, you may wish to talk to a genetic counselor. The counselor may suggest genetic testing for you and the women in your family. Genetic tests can sometimes show the presence of specific gene changes that increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
Personal history of cancer: Women who have had cancer of the breast, uterus, colon, or rectum have a higher risk of ovarian cancer.
Age over 55: Most women are over age 55 when diagnosed with ovarian cancer.
Never pregnant: Older women who have never been pregnant have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.
Menopausal hormone therapy: Some studies have suggested that women who take estrogen by itself (estrogen without progesterone) for 10 or more years may have an increased risk of ovarian cancer
ovarian cancer treatment methods
Treatment methods
Your doctor can describe your treatment choices and the expected results. Most women have surgery and chemotherapy. Rarely, radiation therapy is used.
Cancer treatment can affect cancer cells in the pelvis, in the abdomen, or throughout the body:
Local therapy: Surgery and radiation therapy are local therapies. They remove or destroy ovarian cancer in the pelvis. When ovarian cancer has spread to other parts of the body, local therapy may be used to control the disease in those specific areas.
Intraperitoneal chemotherapy: Chemotherapy can be given directly into the abdomen and pelvis through a thin tube. The drugs destroy or control cancer in the abdomen and pelvis.
Systemic chemotherapy: When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein, the drugs enter the bloodstream and destroy or control cancer throughout the body.
You may want to know how treatment may change your normal activities. You and your doctor can work together to develop a treatment plan that meets your medical and personal needs.
Because cancer treatments often damage healthy cells and tissues, side effects are common. Side effects depend mainly on the type and extent of the treatment. Side effects may not be the same for each woman, and they may change from one treatment session to the next. Before treatment starts, your health care team will explain possible side effects and suggest ways to help you manage them.
You may want to talk to your doctor about taking part in a clinical trial, a research study of new treatment methods. Clinical trials are an important option for women with all stages of ovarian cancer. The section on "The Promise of Cancer Research" has more information about clinical trials.
Your doctor can describe your treatment choices and the expected results. Most women have surgery and chemotherapy. Rarely, radiation therapy is used.
Cancer treatment can affect cancer cells in the pelvis, in the abdomen, or throughout the body:
Local therapy: Surgery and radiation therapy are local therapies. They remove or destroy ovarian cancer in the pelvis. When ovarian cancer has spread to other parts of the body, local therapy may be used to control the disease in those specific areas.
Intraperitoneal chemotherapy: Chemotherapy can be given directly into the abdomen and pelvis through a thin tube. The drugs destroy or control cancer in the abdomen and pelvis.
Systemic chemotherapy: When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein, the drugs enter the bloodstream and destroy or control cancer throughout the body.
You may want to know how treatment may change your normal activities. You and your doctor can work together to develop a treatment plan that meets your medical and personal needs.
Because cancer treatments often damage healthy cells and tissues, side effects are common. Side effects depend mainly on the type and extent of the treatment. Side effects may not be the same for each woman, and they may change from one treatment session to the next. Before treatment starts, your health care team will explain possible side effects and suggest ways to help you manage them.
You may want to talk to your doctor about taking part in a clinical trial, a research study of new treatment methods. Clinical trials are an important option for women with all stages of ovarian cancer. The section on "The Promise of Cancer Research" has more information about clinical trials.
staging for ovarian cancer
Staging
To plan the best treatment, your doctor needs to know the grade of the tumor (see Diagnosis) and the extent (stage) of the disease. The stage is based on whether the tumor has invaded nearby tissues, whether the cancer has spread, and if so, to what parts of the body.
Usually, surgery is needed before staging can be complete. The surgeon takes many samples of tissue from the pelvis and abdomen to look for cancer.
Your doctor may order tests to find out whether the cancer has spread:
CT scan: Doctors often use CT scans to make pictures of organs and tissues in the pelvis or abdomen. An x-ray machine linked to a computer takes several pictures. You may receive contrast material by mouth and by injection into your arm or hand. The contrast material helps the organs or tissues show up more clearly. Abdominal fluid or a tumor may show up on the CT scan.
Chest x-ray: X-rays of the chest can show tumors or fluid.
Barium enema x-ray: Your doctor may order a series of x-rays of the lower intestine. You are given an enema with a barium solution. The barium outlines the intestine on the x-rays. Areas blocked by cancer may show up on the x-rays.
Colonoscopy: Your doctor inserts a long, lighted tube into the rectum and colon. This exam can help tell if cancer has spread to the colon or rectum.
These are the stages of ovarian cancer:
Stage I: Cancer cells are found in one or both ovaries. Cancer cells may be found on the surface of the ovaries or in fluid collected from the abdomen.
Stage II: Cancer cells have spread from one or both ovaries to other tissues in the pelvis. Cancer cells are found on the fallopian tubes, the uterus, or other tissues in the pelvis. Cancer cells may be found in fluid collected from the abdomen.
Stage III: Cancer cells have spread to tissues outside the pelvis or to the regional lymph nodes. Cancer cells may be found on the outside of the liver.
Stage IV: Cancer cells have spread to tissues outside the abdomen and pelvis. Cancer cells may be found inside the liver, in the lungs, or in other organs
To plan the best treatment, your doctor needs to know the grade of the tumor (see Diagnosis) and the extent (stage) of the disease. The stage is based on whether the tumor has invaded nearby tissues, whether the cancer has spread, and if so, to what parts of the body.
Usually, surgery is needed before staging can be complete. The surgeon takes many samples of tissue from the pelvis and abdomen to look for cancer.
Your doctor may order tests to find out whether the cancer has spread:
CT scan: Doctors often use CT scans to make pictures of organs and tissues in the pelvis or abdomen. An x-ray machine linked to a computer takes several pictures. You may receive contrast material by mouth and by injection into your arm or hand. The contrast material helps the organs or tissues show up more clearly. Abdominal fluid or a tumor may show up on the CT scan.
Chest x-ray: X-rays of the chest can show tumors or fluid.
Barium enema x-ray: Your doctor may order a series of x-rays of the lower intestine. You are given an enema with a barium solution. The barium outlines the intestine on the x-rays. Areas blocked by cancer may show up on the x-rays.
Colonoscopy: Your doctor inserts a long, lighted tube into the rectum and colon. This exam can help tell if cancer has spread to the colon or rectum.
These are the stages of ovarian cancer:
Stage I: Cancer cells are found in one or both ovaries. Cancer cells may be found on the surface of the ovaries or in fluid collected from the abdomen.
Stage II: Cancer cells have spread from one or both ovaries to other tissues in the pelvis. Cancer cells are found on the fallopian tubes, the uterus, or other tissues in the pelvis. Cancer cells may be found in fluid collected from the abdomen.
Stage III: Cancer cells have spread to tissues outside the pelvis or to the regional lymph nodes. Cancer cells may be found on the outside of the liver.
Stage IV: Cancer cells have spread to tissues outside the abdomen and pelvis. Cancer cells may be found inside the liver, in the lungs, or in other organs
Custom Search